What is the Real Content of Culture? - Free Translation of 1974 Koentjaraningrat's Anthology

CULTURE, MENTALITY, AND DEVELOPMENT

What is the Real Content of Culture?

A free translation by Marsal Sintung

Nowadays a lot of people like to discuss about the problems between culture and development, relation of ancient and modern culture, alteration of culture values, mentality development, national culture development, relation of beliefs and culture, and so on. In the discussion of study clubs, meetings of intellectuals, courses of employees, or even in interviews of reporters,  I often questioned the things I have mentioned above.

One of them which was often was like: "What exactly is covered within the concept of culture?". Many people interpret it in limited meaning, which is thought, work, and result of human fulfilling his desire of beauty. Briefly, it is all about art. Through the definition the concept of culture is still limited indeed.

On the contrary, several people, especially the social scientists, interpret the concept in an extremely broad sense which is the whole total of thought, work, and result of human not rooted to his instinct through the process of learning. Such concept is widely understandable since it covers almost all the activities of human in life. Things which are excluded in culture are several reflexes based on instinct while an action is actually a respond of instinct as well - for example, when people eat they will use tools, manners, and protocols. These phenomenons will be done after they learn the manner of eating.

Since the interpretation is that broad, for analytical purpose, culture shall be divided into several elements. The biggest element occurred for the first phase's division is called "universal element" which is exactly found in the cultures all over the world, from rural to complex, urban society as mentioned below:

1) System of religion/belief

2) System of social group/government

3) System of knowledge

4) Language

5) Art

6) System of economy

7) Technology

These elements may still be divided into sub elements each. They cover all the culture of humans in the whole world and show its scopes with the contents of the concept. They are deliberately ordered to describe which element is the hardest to change or to have intervention from mutual elements of other culture and which one is the easiest. But this is only an overview since occasionally sub-elements of an element may be hard to change than the one above it. For example, sub-elements of inheritance law (under the element of system of social group) is harder to change than sub-elements of temple architecture (under the element of  system of religion).

We hardly use the concept of culture with such a broad scope or the one used by social scientists in practice. If so, then Indonesia (as the country) might not need other government ministries since the Ministry of Education and Culture covers all the sectors of Indonesia's human life. Of course this will not ever happen, but then comes a new question: "If several sectors in lives of Indonesia people have become responsibility of various related ministries and institutions of the government, which sectors belong to the Ministry of Education and Culture?"

In reality, Ministry of Education and Culture covers only the art element. For development activities of other elements, such as science and languages, Indonesia has already several institutions; Indonesia Institute of Science dealing in sciences and The Language Development and Fostering Agency dealing in languages. Although these kinds of institutes are built, the Directorate of Culture still have to connect the art element to the others in a broader network in order to cover several examples of each elements. The aspect of economy and commercial from art which has to be developed by tourism, or the politics one for personal and national integration development, should be specially concerned by the directorate.

(July 2016)

The Symbolism of Door as the Trigger of Psychological Transition on "A Doll's House" by Henrik Ibsen

THE SYMBOLISM OF DOOR AS THE TRIGGER OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TRANSITION ON "A DOLL'S HOUSE" BY HENRIK IBSEN

Marsal Sintung

Basically, a door is a moving structure installed on a wall or surface which ease the circulation between or among rooms surrounded as a separator. The presence of the thing is absolute in human being, but not in literary works. It may refer to more than just a moving structure revealed by the writer and it is applied, for example, in “A Doll’s House” by a Norwegian playwright, Henrik Ibsen.

The work “A Doll’s House” tells about Nora, who is the main character of the story, forges her father’s signature in order to take a loan for her sick husband, Torvald. She lives as a woman who is able to adapt her actions through every situations until the story ends with her determination, for she thinks his husband does not love her anymore instead of her efforts to build a good family through sacrifices.

Ibsen gives revelation through the role of objects around the characters, and the door in the play is one of the most important objects which reveals the characterization of Nora. Every use determines her psychological condition. Before talking about the role of the door, it is required to analyze the acts when Nora uses it as Ibsen wrote:

ACT I

1. Nora showed up using the front door after bought several Christmas needs.

2. Nora used the door to Torvald’s study to find out.

3. Nora opened the door for her children after their outdoor activities.

ACT II

1. Nora used the front door with worries to find out who would come or what happened outside.

2. Nora opened door for Doctor Rank.

3. Nora locked the door when Krogstad came to the house complaining his disposal.

4. Nora used the door to find out if Krogstad put his blackmail into the house’s mailbox.

5. Nora opened the door for Torvald and Doctor Rank so they could see her wearing the Tarantella’s attire.

ACT III

1. Nora went out leaving Torvald through the front door.

Below is the explanation about the role of doors as objects of transition of psychological condition for Nora reacting her surroundings:

1. The door as the trigger of cheerfulness and enthusiasm. This revelation can be found in Act I, starting from the beginning of the act. Nora was narrated entering the house after she bought some Christmas needs. Happily, she hummed while carrying the things, then helped by the porter then the maid. She gave tip to the porter, in that situation where she was feeling cheerful and was thinking the Christmas celebration for the family.

2. The door as the trigger of loyalty and amorousness. After she had done with the things for Christmas, while she was having her macaroon, she went toward her husband’s study to check if he was in using her ear instead of opening it. Implicitly analyzed, she had amorousness and passion to Torvald as her husband, especially from the conversation of both using ‘twittering bird’ and ‘little squirrel.’

3. The door as the trigger of childishness and family-oriented character. The story told that Nora had a serious conversation with Torvald, Christine, and Doctor Rank, but the appearance of her children turned her from serious into a cheerful and enthusiastic, childish woman – a drastic change of behavior management. The purpose is not just about to adapt with them, but also to show the adults that she could be a someone which was pleasant to a younger generation, followed by her dancing with one of the children and complements also a cheerful kiss when she welcomed them through the front door.

4. The door as the trigger of worries and discomfort. This happened several times in Act II with Krogstad as the cause. His threats made Nora opened the door for times just for checking his coming and the blackmail. During this situation, Nora became a coward, even the feeling was carried out until her respond to Torvald and Rank at the moment she was about to try the Tarantella attire and the practice.

5. The door as the trigger of pleasantness. Nora always tried to become a good fellow to everyone, but the notable case was to Doctor Rank as the friend of her husband. She could professionally muffle her worries from the threat of the day and became a good listener. Even, Nora could keep the conversation professional as a colleague without ruling out pleasantness when Rank started to get into a deep but awkward conversation.

6. The door as the final use – the revelation of true identity and portal of change. This use of door is the first and the last use of Nora written on the play in Act III which took the situation when Nora left Torvald forever.

It was written that Krogstad had put the blackmail into the Helmer family, although he was about to take it back since he, near the end of the story, was happy after Christine was willing to rejoin him (the truth was they were once romantically-involved). For the sake of both Torvald and Nora, Christine persuaded Krogstad not to take the mail back so there would be nothing hidden anymore. The mail made Torvald so furious to Nora with swears and insults, and she felt so guilty as if she was not deserved to be in the family. But what Torvald felt after Krogstad sent the letter of clearing the case turned into a great happiness; this was the point where Nora revealed who she really was through the transition of her psychological condition.

Torvald’s emotion expressed to Nora torn her out. Thereupon, in a greater depression than the previous one she got from the first, she finally realized that he did not love Nora with all he was. Torvald treated Nora as his wife like a doll, just like she got from her father in her previous life (that is why Ibsen gave this work ‘A Doll’s House). She was pampered, considered not wise enough to spend money as if she was not able to do the duty of a wife while in fact she ran things greatly and professionally - from her case forging her died father’s signature to loan for her sick husband, maintained the house, raised the children, being a faithful wife, everything she had done so everyone would be satisfied with her presence. Unfortunately, those great things were not realized by Torvald, and worse, he thought that by pampering Nora was the enough, appropriate respond for all her hard works.

Nora made her choice to leave him forever for she thought Torvald loved her no more. Her identity revelation was clearly expressed through her dialog after the anger of Torvald. While she was about to leave the house, this was the moment where door took its position as the trigger of psychological condition transition. The leaving Nora, through the door, gives the symbol of the true independence, firmness, and professionalism also a critic personality. All these behaviors was once and for all ended with a door slam as the end of the story, as the symbol of integrity, that she was not a someone who could be treated like a doll anymore.

That is all about the magnificent work of Ibsen titled ‘A Doll’s House.’ His brilliance was expressed through the placing of functions of door through the play; he enriched the revelation in Act II, then he made the one last use at the end of the story in Act III, as if he wanted to emphasize the essence of characterization.

The conclusion is that a litterateur may freely create uncountable, unexpected ways of characterization through dialogs, situations, even objects. Ibsen had brilliantly done it through the objects scattered in his play, which its presence took an important role and most of the people would not realize it much – the door. 

(December 2014)

Dedicated to all Literature students, especially in University of Sam Ratulangi

*You don't write because you want to say something, but you write because you have something to say - Francis Scott Fitzgerald*

Ilmu Padi dan Seni Perang Sun Tzu; Menelaah Filosofi Hidup dalam Hal Potensi Manusia

ILMU PADI DAN SENI PERANG SUN TZU; MENELAAH FILOSOFI HIDUP DALAM HAL POTENSI MANUSIA

Marsal Sintung

Manusia hidup karena kemampuannya, dan kemampuan itu menjadi hidup karena kemanusiaannya. Itu yang menjadi semboyan pribadi saya meresponi pertanyaan seputar problematika humanis. Kedua hal ini dinyatakan dalam bentuk filosofi hidup dan ekpresi ide yang dianut manusia sebagai makhluk istimewa ciptaan-Nya, dan yang menjadi pembahasan saat ini adalah Ilmu Padi dan Seni Perang Sun Tzu; dua hal berbeda yang mengangkat potensi manusia sebagai fokus bahasan. Mereka berperan sebagai 'penerang' dalam meresponi manifestasi modal, tetapi hasil yang diperoleh berbeda satu sama lain. 

Ilmu Padi menyatakan "semakin berisi semakin merunduk"; semakin tinggi kemampuan seseorang, ia selayaknya semakin rendah hati sebagaimana yang ‘dilakukan’ padi saat bulirnya berisi penuh dengan tangkainya yang terkulai menopang beratnya. Filosofi hidup ini mengajarkan tentang bagaimana manusia merespon kemampuan akan suatu hal dan penerapannya dalam kehidupan sosial. Analogi filosofis ini memang dapat membuat manusia melakukan tindak kontrol akan dirinya dalam lingkungan sosial. Namun dalam beberapa hal bila dikaji lebih lanjut, filosofi ini malah membuat makna dan tujuannya semakin pudar.

Padi memang semakin merunduk jika berisi, tetapi ini membuat tangkai justru semakin lemah dan rentan akan kerobohan karena beberapa faktor, seperti angin. Dianalogikan dengan manusia yang bermodal menonjol, jika dia semakin merendahkan hatinya, maka di titik ini justru dia rentan akan cobaan dan godaan. Dia gampang untuk merasakan sakit hati dan putus asa disebabkan dia yang hanya tahu untuk merendahkan hatinya; menyimpan segala sesuatu, entah itu rasa bangga karena pujian atas pencapaian atau sindiran tajam dari mulut lain yang iri hati, dalam hatinya tanpa pengekspresian yang jelas. Hal ini tentu saja merugikan dirinya, karena secara psikologis, segala yang buruk yang didapatkannya yang menyangkut respon atas kemampuan atau pengetahuannya yang menonjol, akan bergejolak dan mencari jalan keluar bagaimana agar perasaan ini dapat diekspresikan sementara dia hanya tahu merendah dan merendah.

Pemaknaan padi yang merunduk juga memberi kesan betapa mulianya ia dalam wujud ini sehingga dapat mengundang empati bagi pengontak. Atas dasar inilah kenapa padi yang merunduk justru melunturkan unsur metaforanya sendiri, karena sesungguhnya wujudnya telah sepadan dengan respon ‘pemanen’ yang berkontak dengannya. Hal ini tidak memberikan nilai-tukar yang lebih lagi untuk dirinya. Oleh karena itu, figur ini, jika ditelaah lagi maknanya tanpa membutuhkan tenaga-kerja yang banyak, maka akan terungkap bahwa ia memiliki keterbatasan nilai.

Semua unsur metafora dalam filosofi anutan masyarakat Asia Tenggara ini bertolak belakang dengan yang terkandung dalam Seni Perang; sebuah karya filsafat militer asal Tiongkok di abad ke-6 SM oleh seorang jenderal perang bernama Sun Tzu. Isinya memang adalah beragam strategi dan metode perang, tetapi penerapannya dalam konteks sosial masyrakat memiliki dampak bagi kehidupan manusia yang jauh melampaui batasan dari sekedar filosofi Ilmu Padi.

Perlu diketahui bahwa Seni Perang memiliki total 13 bab dengan ayat-ayat yang menguraikannya. Fokus bab yang dapat melawan nilai estetika filosofi Ilmu Padi yang telah duluan menjamur dalam kepala masyarakat terdapat pada bab pertama ayat ke-18, yang terjemahan Inggris oleh Lionel Giles di tahun 1910 berbunyi:

"All warfare is based on deception. Hence, when we are able to attack, we must seem unable; when using our forces, we must appear inactive; when we are near, we must make the enemy believe we are far away; when far away, we must make him believe we are near."

"Semua perang didasarkan pada penipuan. Oleh karena itu, saat kita berpeluang menyerang, kita harus terlihat tidak berpeluang; saat menggunakan pasukan, kita harus terlihat tidak aktif; saat kita dekat, kita buat dia yakin kita jauh; saat kita jauh, kita harus buat dia yakin kita dekat."

Penerapan taktik Sun Tzu menawarkan hal di luar konteks Ilmu Padi yang menghendaki manusia merendahkan hati atas kemampuannya. Jika Ilmu Padi membawa manusia pada pengendalian rasa bangga, maka Seni Perang justru membuat manusia meninggalkan pergumulan akan konflik akibat kemampuannya (bermegah atau berendah). Idenya adalah membuat manusia untuk menyeberang dari titik konflik atau melampauinya dan menciptakan yang baru, walaupun itu bisa jadi adalah ingkaran dari wujud dasarnya. Ayat ke-18 dari Seni Perang ini menghendaki agar manusia melakukan kebalikan dari fakta lapangan dengan tujuan melipatgandakan hasilnya.

Sun Tzu mengambil kesempatan untuk menyimpan atau menciptakan lebih banyak prediksi hasil melalui penggunaan keadaan terlenanya lawan akibat rasa menang. Jika diimplementasikan pada kehidupan manusia dalam hal potensi, maka taktik Sun Tzu ini dapat menjadi tujuan untuk membentuk manusia menjadi jauh lebih dari sekedar onggokan daging bernalar juga bernurani.

Sebagai contoh sederhana, katakanlah seorang A memiliki talenta sebagai modal yang menonjolkan dirinya. Dia mendapatkan respon positif dari sekitar. Jika memakai penerapan ide Sun Tzu, maka tanggapan A ini adalah dia akan bertingkah seolah talenta yang dimilikinya itu hanyalah suatu kebetulan belaka; hoki, dengan dasar ide bahwa di dunia ini segala sesuatu yang didapatkan ada yang baik ada pula buruk. Dia bisa saja melakukan tindakan preventif akan respon positif yang nantinya akan menjadi pemujaan dengan cara menunjukkan hal yang menurunkan kualitas dirinya yang bertujuan menciptakan keseimbangan; konsep Yin Yang sebagai ide dasar Taoisme yang dianut masyarakat Tiongkok semasa ide Sun Tzu ini dituangkan.

Namun, jika contoh di atas memakai penerapan Ilmu Padi, maka tanggapan A hanya menerima fakta apa adanya bahwa memang input yang didapatkannya adalah konsekuensi dari output yang ditampakkannya. Artinya, dia menjunjung nilai kesepadanan. Jika kesepadanan ini mengambil alih dirinya, maka seharusnya dia tidak 'merunduk' namun justru semakin menonjolkan rupanya; sebuah gejolak sebagaimana yang saya paparkan sebelumnya di atas.

Pengkajian lebih lanjut membuktikan bahwa penerapan taktik Sun Tzu dalam hal potensi manusia ini memberikan arahan postif melalui kebebasan tanpa batas. Manusia dapat mengeksplorasi aspek kemanusiaannya tanpa mengeksploitasi aktor (manusia) lainnya. Kreatifitas dan beragam modal-kerja dapat diperoleh untuk mengelola nilai kemanusiaan yang lebih baik lagi. Kebebasan yang terkandung melalui penerapan ini juga memberikan kontribusi berupa pengendalian emosi, dalam hal ini rasa bangga, sebagaimana yang pada Ilmu Padi. Bedanya, penerapan taktik Sun Tzu mempermainkan esensi respon, sedangkan Ilmu Padi justru menggumulinya. Maka daripada itu, Seni Perang dapat menciptakan pribadi yang berintelek dalam hal emosi. Sebagai ujung lain dari dahan ini, intelektualitas emosi menciptakan suatu intelektualitas lain; memandaikan manusia lain melalui kepandaian suatu manusia, sehingga ini merupakan perwujudan abstrak dari pembentukan nilai kemanusiaan.

Kesimpulan yang bisa saya katakan di sini melalui perbandingan dua ide kemanusiaan di atas adalah Ilmu Padi menerapkan konsep kesepadanan, sedangkan Seni Perang keseimbangan. Mereka tidak dapat saling menjatuhkan, namun juga tidak saling melengkapi. Namun, karena ini adalah diskusi menjawab problematika humanis dalam hal respon potensi, perbandingan tersebut memenangkan konsep keseimbangan dalam Seni Perang; sebuah 'jembatan sebanding' yang menetapkan arahan manusia sebagai pemilik kemampuan memanusiakan yang lainnya.

"Jika Ilmu Padi adalah filosofi tak berkonflik namun bergumul, maka Seni Perang Sun Tzu adalah penerapan taktik berkonflik namun tak bergumul."

 (Agustus 2015)